Narration

Observers of industrial cities and cities of the mercantile era of the Middle East point out that all these landscapes are shaped by forces of segregation and separation. Arab cities had clear-cut quarters and divided ethnic groups. Many of these quarters were walled, with gates that were shut at night. As industrial society developed, sociologists argue, there was a need for specialized places of residence because of the need for social status. Because of the increased capacity for production, middle-class people began to dress like upper-class people. The elite realized that they had to withdraw to homogeneous quarters to separate themselves from the status-seeking middle and lower classes. In addition to this social segregation, people have long wished to avoid economic activities that are blighting and unpleasant. Thus, citizens sorted themselves according to wealth and in response to the location of amenities in the landscape.

In addition, the development of new transportation systems changed the relative location of parts of the city. The old core areas, which were developed during the railroad and river transportation eras, were less accessible in the era of automobiles and freeways, whereas suburban areas were more so. As a result, by the end of the twentieth century, manufacturing jobs were more frequently found at the edge of the city than in the core. This produced a mismatch between potential employees among the lower-income population residing in the city centers and the availability of jobs in the suburban development zones. Geographers argue that there is a conscious effort to devalue some parts of the city so that capitalists can come in and make huge profits. While that theory is far from being proven, it is clear that some parts of the landscape are less valued and less attractive for residential development.

Ghettoization is a different process. It refers to the legal restriction of people to certain areas. This was a widespread practice in the Mediterranean and in Europe. The practice was transported to North America and other parts of the colonial empires by the imperialists; thus all cities dominated by the global economy have some form of ghettoization. The term "ghettoization" has, of course, been redefined to mean more simply a concentration of a certain group to a certain area against their will, not necessarily legally but through paralegal practices and practices of social discrimination. Ghettoization is different from separation of people by income. Ghettos refer to areas where populations of mixed income are confined to a certain area even though they might have the means and desire to move.

Gentrification is still another activity. It is a process through which higher-income people repopulate an area that was once an upper-class neighborhood but was later abandoned and taken over by lower-income people. The phenomenon of gentrification began in the 1960s in London and other large cities where rather low-paid white-collar workers were employed in the central business district. They became frustrated with the cost of their long-distance commutes and moved into areas in the center cities where they were able to rent or buy conveniently located larger housing units at a low cost. However, these places were in disrepair and in neighborhoods that were thought to be dangerous and a very risky investment. The proponents of gentrification argue that the alternative was to have these places continue to deteriorate until they had to be condemned and pulled down. Low-income owners or renters could not afford the cost of rehabilitating the buildings.

Web Site

To view the following Web site, please go to "See also" below.

The Teachers' Corner contains links to suggested Web sites. The College Board neither endorses, controls the content of, nor reviews the external Web sites included here. Please note that following links to external Web sites will open a new browser window. If you discover a link that does not work, please let us know by sending an e-mail to apctechsupport@collegeboard.org.

Residential Racial Segregation
A college paper that explains the causes of residential racial segregation in urban areas and the problems resulting from ghettoization. Outlines possible policy solutions.